Advances in exoskeletons for military use

Abstract. - Development and use of exoskeletons worldwide have fostered many applications aimed at

occupational health care and safety in multiple areas of industry, including the military. This article presents a

systematic review of advances in exoskeletons used for various tasks performed by military personnel. In

addition, a systematic review of scientific literature obtained from multidisciplinary bases and the field of

occupational health has been carried out. Various technologies and exoskeleton designs assist in specific

areas of the body where exertion can cause musculoskeletal disorders. Exoskeletons provide additional

torque to multiple joints decreasing physical fatigue and increasing performance in physically demanding

tasks. Most exoskeletons used in the military employ electric actuators and have been developed for the hip

and knee region.

Keywords: Exoskeleton, assistance, physical performance, military activities, physical demand.

ISSN-E: 2737-6419

Athenea Journal,

Vol. 4, Issue 12, (pp. 43-54)

Mendoza F. et al. Advances in exoskeletons for military use.

Franklin Mendoza

https://orcid.org/0009-0005-8034-7286

edu_men02@hotmail.com

Ejército Ecuatoriano Comandancia General

Fuerza Terrestre

Quito-Ecuador

Resumen: El desarrollo y uso de exoesqueletos a nivel mundial ha fomentado un sin número de aplicaciones

direccionadas al cuidado de la salud y seguridad ocupacional en múltiples ámbitos de la industria incluyendo

el ámbito militar. En este artículo se presenta una revisión sistemática de los avances en exoesqueletos que

se emplean para múltiples tareas realizadas por el personal militar. Se ha realizado una revisión sistemática

de literatura científica obtenida de bases multidisciplinarias y del ámbito de la salud ocupacional. Existe una

variedad de tecnologías y diseños de exoesqueletos que brindan asistencia en zonas específicas del cuerpo

en donde el esfuerzo puede provocar trastornos musculoesqueléticos. Los exoesqueletos brindan un par

adicional a múltiples articulaciones disminuyendo la fatiga física y aumentando el rendimiento en tareas de

alta exigencia física. La mayoría de los exoesqueletos usados en el ámbito militar emplean actuadores

eléctricos y se han desarrollado para la región de la cadera y rodillas.

Palabras clave: Exoesqueleto, asistencia, rendimiento físico, actividades militares, exigencia física.

Avances en exoesqueletos para uso en el ámbito militar

Received (5/12/2022), Accepted (13/04/2023)

Diana Durango

https://orcid.org/0009-0001-3243-6592

dianyscris_19@hotmail.com

Ejército Ecuatoriano

Brigada de Selva 17 “PASTAZA”

Shell-Ecuador

Gabriela Pallo

https://orcid.org/0009-0003-5409-5957

dianagabriela_1988@hotmail.com

Ejército Ecuatoriano

Instituto Geográfico Militar

Quito-Ecuador

Edison Merchan

https://orcid.org/0009-0008-2866-22997

edisonmerchan@95mail.com

Ejército Ecuatoriano

Comando de Apoyo Logístico 27 “PORTETE”

Cuenca-Ecuador

https://doi.org/10.47460/athenea.v4i12.57

ISSN-E: 2737-6419

Athenea Journal,

Vol. 4, Issue 12, (pp. 43-54)

I. INTRODUCTION

Exoskeletons are devices that, through electric, pneumatic, hydraulic, or mechanical actuators, provide

support to the joints and musculoskeletal systems of the human body by mimicking and driving movements

and allowing them to reducing the physical load during the execution of specific repetitive tasks. The primary

function of exoskeletons is to help the structure of users hold or manipulate loads and prevent excessive

efforts from being concentrated in areas such as the hip, shoulders, knee, back, legs, etc. [1]. Exoskeletons are

often required to perform tasks in medicine, industry, military, security, and others that need high physical

demand. In addition to this, these devices have been designed to assist people with disabilities or physical

mobility limitations. The developments of exoskeletons focus on providing a more natural movement, reducing

the devices to more superficial structures, and achieving operation with lower energy consumption to extend

their autonomy.

In the military, exoskeletons increase the strength and mobility of active members in campaign and conflict

zones. With the advancement of technology in assistance exoskeletons and the development of more efficient

actuators, greater importance has been given to implementing these devices in defense and security[2].

Performance improvements have been evidenced in tasks related to the handling of loads and prolonged

movements in walks mainly.

In recent years, exoskeletons and exosuits have been used mainly by the medical, industrial, and military

industries. Although they have been used for some years to enhance occupational health and safety in

workers, there is still insufficient evidence of the physical interaction between the exoskeleton and the human

being (pHEI). Assessing pHEI is essential for accepting and using these devices on a large scale. Research into

robotic exoskeletons has been very active in the last decade due to advances in hardware, efficiency, and

power supply. Since 1960, the study of these devices has sought to combine the human body and a robotic

system to provide protection and support, improving the user's athletic ability and muscular endurance [3].

Despite developments in exoskeletons, there are still significant limitations to their practical use, including

inefficient actuator power systems and their impact on occupational safety. Nevertheless, the story of

exoskeletons has become an essential line of research in robotics.

Table 1 presents in a general way the most frequent types of exoskeletons from the point of view of

applicability in the military field, the parts of the body that are assisted by this device, the technologies used,

and their frequent applications in which they are used by military personnel [4].

Table 1. Technological aspects addressed by Industry 4.0 in aviation.

Mendoza F. et al. Advances in exoskeletons for military use.

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An increasing variety of societal needs justifies the expanding development of exoskeletons. The growing

population of people with movement disabilities due to stroke, spinal cord injury, or other related diseases has

driven the demand for devices that can improve their quality of life, helping them regain the ability to walk

independently [4]. On the other hand, devices that can increase the physical capabilities of people without

disabilities are also required to improve their performance in the military field. In the last decade, exoskeletons

and robotic assistive devices have made significant progress in making commercially available products. The

exoskeletons applied in the military field have five categories that depend on their application. These are Full

body Military Exoskeletons, Lower Body Powered Military Exoskeletons, Passive Military Exoskeletons, Energy

Scavenging, and Stationary Military Exoskeletons.

Entire body Military Exoskeletons are a category of exoskeletons that cover the soldier’s whole body, from

head to toe. These exoskeletons provide complete protection against injury and explosions and are often

combined with communication and life support systems to increase the soldier's survivability on the

battlefield. Lower Body Powered Military Exoskeletons are designed to assist and improve the mobility of a

soldier's legs and pelvis[5]. These exoskeletons use electric or hydraulic motors to support the legs, increasing

muscular strength and endurance and reducing fatigue. Passive military exoskeletons are military

exoskeletons that do not require any external power source; instead, they use passive technologies, such as

springs and shock-absorbing materials, to reduce the load on the soldier's body and improve mobility and

endurance. Finally, stationary military exoskeletons are used for static and specific tasks, such as handling

heavy loads in a stagnant environment. These exoskeletons are anchored to a fixed platform or structure,

such as a vehicle, work platform, or military installation, and provide support to reduce fatigue and increase

the soldier's endurance.

The movements generated by the actuators of the exoskeletons, in the case of active exoskeletons, must be

entirely controlled by electronic systems that are responsible for activating or deactivating them depending on

the intention of movement of the limbs or positions adopted by the user of the device. In terms of application,

exoskeleton controllers are equipped with task controllers that can be adapted in different ways to meet other

goals. Maintaining good safety and health conditions for military members is a crucial aspect. In their routine

activities, soldiers must often carry heavy equipment during their missions, prone to musculoskeletal

affectations in the back region despite their continuous physical preparation. Therefore, the interest of the

military field is in searching for, developing, and implementing new technologies such as exoskeletons [5].

The increase in physical activity of wars and conflicts today has resulted in a more significant load and

demand for soldiers, which has promoted solutions such as exoskeletons to ensure better performance and

chances of injury during field operations relieving overload and improving the physical capacity of soldiers,,

reducing your oxygen consumption and increasing your energy to perform tasks such as walking, running, and

jumping. Among the best-known exoskeletons are the Berkeley Lower Extremity Exoskeleton (BLEEX),

Raytheon XOS, Human Universal Load Carrier (HULC), and Hybrid Assisted Limb (HAL). The U.S. Defense

Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) uses the first three as individual combat exoskeletons, while the

HAL is also used outside the military [6].

In the development section, this document explains the technologies used in the models of exoskeletons

used in the military field. The Methodologies section describes how the information was obtained from the

scientific literature. The results section comments on the findings and new technologies, addressing multiple

viewpoints and finally presenting the conclusions.

Mendoza F. et al. Advances in exoskeletons for military use.

ISSN-E: 2737-6419

Athenea Journal,

Vol. 4, Issue 12, (pp. 43-54)

II. DEVELOPMENT

Exoskeletons in recent decades and within the military have been implemented in applications such as

personal protection, cargo assistance, mobility improvement, and rehabilitation. Advances in exoskeleton

technology have led to the creation of more advanced and practical models, and it is expected that their use

will continue to expand in the future as well as that the academy will strengthen these lines of research by

enhancing unexplored areas to improve human interaction with these devices [3].

Table 2 presents the aspects identified in scientific literature according to the characteristics or lines of

research related to developing exoskeletons for the military field, whose criteria are also used in the industry

in general [7].

Of the four areas in Table 2, most studies show a frequent site that connects skeletons with the study of

humans, which is robotics (Fig. 1). The participation of multiple disciplines is evidenced, such as mechanical

design, human engineering, control and electronics, physiology, human-computer interaction, etc. In addition,

the United States’ significant contribution to these investigations and developments is highlighted. Most

studies consider robotic wireless technology systems for lower extremity support. Artificial intelligence has

been incorporated into these developments to improve motion control, user interaction, and experiences [8].

Table 2. Areas of research related to developing projects in exoskeletons for the military field.

Mendoza F. et al. Advances in exoskeletons for military use.

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Fig. 1. Bibliometric graph of occurrence of keywords in 200 studies of exoskeletons that mention military applications

Considering the base of SCOPUS (last ten years), graphics made with VOSviewer®

Military exoskeletons have focused on assisting certain limbs and specific body areas compromised by the

realization of great physical exertion and muscle fatigue due to repetitive movements.

Exoskeletons for the military focus on assisting the following parts of the human body: elbow-shoulder,

shoulder, hip, ankle-knee-hip, knee, and spine [9]. Figure 2 presents illustrations of exoskeletons with

structures similar to those used with current technologies in military personnel.

Fig. 2. Bibliometric graph of occurrence of keywords in 200 studies of exoskeletons that mention military applications

Considering the base of SCOPUS (last ten years), graphics made with VOSviewer®

Technologies employed in exoskeletons have been linked to the actuators that provide additional torque

when the user requires it for their movement. Motion transmissions include actuators: cable driven, hypoid

gear, variable stiffness actuator, springs BoC, pneumatic, hydraulic, passive, and electric [2].

Mendoza F. et al. Advances in exoskeletons for military use.

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The United States, Russia, Israel, China, and South Korea lead the most significant investment in exoskeleton

research and development projects. The United States has invested significantly in the research and

development of military exoskeletons to reduce the physical burden on its soldiers and improve their

battlefield performance. It has also established collaborative programs with universities and companies to

accelerate the development of advanced exoskeletons. Russia: Russian industry has been working on the

development of military exoskeletons for several years now. Russian exoskeletons have been used in military

exercises and are expected to be used in real missions [10]. Israel has invested in developing military

exoskeletons to improve its soldiers' mobility and carrying capacity. Israel has developed lightweight and

portable exoskeletons that can be adapted to different tasks on the battlefield. China has invested in research

and development of military exoskeletons to improve the performance of its soldiers. Chinese exoskeletons

have been used in military exercises and are expected to be used in real missions. South Korea has been

developing military exoskeletons to improve its soldiers' carrying capacity and mobility. Korean exoskeletons

have been used in military exercises and are expected to be used in actual missions [11]. It should be noted

that other countries in Europe and Asia are working on the research and development of military

exoskeletons, although to a lesser extent than those mentioned above.

Figure 3 presents multiple developments of exoskeletons driven by the countries that most research and

produce them. Although the devices in Figure 3 are commercial and used in the military field, the type of

assisted joint, the name or model of the device, and the type of actuator used are specified in the graph.

The adoption of exoskeletons and their military use raises ethical and social concerns that need to be

addressed by ethicists, industry, and society at large. These concerns include the personal and psychological

impact on disabled people and their families, access to expensive technology, and the dependency it can

generate [12]. One of the concerns is that the extensive use of exoskeletons on soldiers could promote an

increased workload of personnel and dehumanize activities during wars and conflicts. These problems have no

easy solutions and may require regulatory solutions or cost reduction as technology becomes more accessible.

But in general, exoskeletons and other human enhancement technologies raise complex questions that force

us to redefine our perception of humanity and ourselves.

Fig. 3. Types of actuators and exoskeletons developed for assistance according to the parts of the human body.

Mendoza F. et al. Advances in exoskeletons for military use.

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Evidence shows that wearing custom exoskeletons during a military obstacle course resulted in better overall

performance than a condition without an exoskeleton. However, some obstacles, such as going up and down

stairs, hatches, and tunnels, were performed more slowly with the exoskeleton. In addition, while weight

acceptability and torso stiffness were similar in both conditions, overall performance acceptability was better

without the exoskeleton.

Table 3 presents the most advanced exoskeletons that use state-of-the-art technology and are used by the

armies of the most developed countries to support their military personnel. The name of the devices, the

country of origin, and the most frequent applications in the military field are described [13].

Table. 3. Most technologically advanced exoskeletons used by the world's armies.

Analyzing the above table of military exoskeletons, some interesting trends and patterns can be observed

regarding the technology and its application in the military field. First, most exoskeletons are designed to

improve soldiers' mobility and strength and help lift and carry heavy loads. This suggests that one of the main

goals of military exoskeleton technology is to increase soldiers' physical capacity and endurance in combat

situations.

Various countries are developing advanced military exoskeletons, with the United States leading the way in

the number of exoskeletons produced. This suggests a significant investment and resources devoted to

researching and developing military exoskeleton technology.

A variety of specific applications are evident for different military exoskeletons. For example, some are

designed specifically for protection, while others are designed to improve soldiers' mobility and strength. This

suggests that there are a host of different approaches to the design and implementation of military

exoskeleton technology and that exoskeletons may have a variety of specific applications in different military

contexts. Furthermore, modern technology also empowers using artificial intelligence (AI) in exoskeletons to

improve the efficiency, accuracy, and responsiveness of exoskeleton control and feedback systems and detect

and fix potential problems before they become significant problems [8].

Mendoza F. et al. Advances in exoskeletons for military use.

ISSN-E: 2737-6419

Athenea Journal,

Vol. 4, Issue 12, (pp. 43-54)

Some studies show the impact of using exoskeletons in the military field. For example, an improvement in

strength and endurance has been determined according to a 2017 study published in the Journal of

Biomechanics, which determined that using exoskeletons increased soldiers' strength and endurance by 27%

and 23%, respectively [14]. Furthermore, a 2020 study published in the Journal of Military Medicine has

reduced the risk of injury. It was found that using exoskeletons reduced pain in the back and legs by 41% and

39%, respectively. In addition, participants reported less fatigue after wearing the exoskeletons, suggesting

they can help prevent injuries in combat situations [14].

There was an increase in efficiency, according to a 2019 article published in the Journal of Human

Performance in Extreme Environments which determined that using exoskeletons reduced the time needed to

complete cargo transport tasks by 19%. In addition, participants reported reduced perceived exertion and

greater task efficiency when wearing exoskeletons [15]. Furthermore, the improvement in precision and

stability has been evidenced according to the article in the Journal of Neuroengineering and Rehabilitation, in

which it was found that the use of exoskeletons improved the precision and stability of the user's movements

by 29% and 23%, respectively. Additionally, participants reported greater accuracy and control in delicate hand

and finger movements when wearing exoskeletons.

III. METHODOLOGY

The information from scientific literature has been obtained from articles of previous reviews published in

scientific repositories and databases such as SCOPUS, IEEE, and Science Direct. In addition, articles were

screened that will not describe military applications of exoskeletons and that were not related to tasks

common to this field, considering routine field activities and requiring considerable physical demand. A total of

14 reference works were carried out to develop this article. The documents reviewed corresponded to the

period of the last five years.

Figure 4 describes the workflow in selecting the articles considered for this study that provide input in the

identification of military exoskeletons on developments of the last five years in several countries of the world

and for multiple parts of the body that are assisted with these technologies. Open access documents were

considered based on "military AND exoskeleton.” To obtain information, open-access documents, reviews,

overviews, and original research were considered, and conference papers were excluded.

Fig. 4. Workflow in identifying the selected articles based on the guidelines of the PRISMA methodologies.

Mendoza F. et al. Advances in exoskeletons for military use.

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Vol. 4, Issue 12, (pp. 43-54)

IV. RESULTADOS

This review article has identified the exoskeletons used in the military field and the type of assistance it

provides, especially to soldiers and their operating technologies. It has been described as the contribution to

the conditions of safety and occupational health that contribute while performing tasks of high physical

demand. The advantages and disadvantages of the use of these technologies are identified. The line of

research in exoskeletons has generated interest in recent years. One of the most important aspects is the

interaction and comfort of using these devices.

Significant progress has been made in developing exoskeletons for use in the military. One of the most

significant advances has been the miniaturization of the systems, creating more portable exoskeletons

adaptable to different combat situations. In addition, incorporating sensors and artificial intelligence systems

have improved the ability of exoskeletons to adapt to the needs of soldiers and provide personalized support

in real-time. Another critical advance that has been identified has been the development of exoskeletons with

flight capabilities, which can be helpful for reconnaissance and surveillance missions. Work has also been done

on creating exoskeletons that can provide medical support on the battlefield, such as devices that stabilize

fractures and prevent further limb damage. Overall, these advances improve soldiers' ability to accomplish

their missions and reduce the risk of injuries and illnesses related to physical and mental stress on the

battlefield. Table 1 shows the advantages and disadvantages observed in the use of exoskeletons in the

military environment.

Table. 4. Workflow in identifying the selected articles based on the guidelines of the PRISMA methodologies.

The exoskeletons most developed in the last decade are electrical due to the ease of implementing these

technologies and microelectronics developments that advance the best use of electrical energy. The actuators

of these exoskeletons are characterized by their operation with direct current and have a structure similar to

that of Figure 5.

Fig. 5. Schematic representation of the electrical, electronic, and mechanical components that make up

the control system of electric actuators in torsion-assisted electric exoskeletons.

Where V represents the source of direct electrical energy; R is the resistance of the electrical system; L is the

inductance of the electrical system; J is the rotational inertia, Ɵ the angle of rotation; d is the damping K the

induction constant used and X is the displacement of the limb or joint that moves with the exoskeleton.

Mendoza F. et al. Advances in exoskeletons for military use.

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Table. 5. Effort-work relationship in the design of exoskeletons.

Exoskeletons reduce users’ physical effort, helping them perform physical tasks more efficiently and with less

fatigue. On the other hand, exoskeletons also serve mechanical work by assisting users in the execution of

tasks, such as lifting heavy loads or performing repetitive movements.

Table 6 shows the most important aspects considered in the design of exoskeletons. These are essential

considerations in creating military exoskeletons, as they affect functionality and user experience. For example,

exoskeletons must be ergonomic, durable, and easy to use while offering mobility, protection, and

compatibility with other equipment used by soldiers. In addition, energy autonomy and communication

capacity are essential factors to maximize effectiveness on the battlefield.

Table. 6. Factors to consider in the design of exoskeletons.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of exoskeletons in the military is a complex and controversial topic that requires careful evaluation of

the potential benefits and risks. Therefore, it is crucial that rigorous research is conducted and that the ethics

and legality of using these devices are carefully considered before making decisions about their

implementation in the military field.

Exoskeletons can improve the efficiency and capability of soldiers on the battlefield. By providing greater

strength, endurance, and protection, exoskeletons can allow soldiers to carry more weight and maintain high

performance for extended periods. Exoskeletons can also reduce the risk of injuries and illnesses related to

physical and mental stress on the battlefield. This can include back, shoulder, and knee injuries, heat-related

illnesses, and fatigue.

Although exoskeletons have great potential to improve soldiers' ability on the battlefield, they also present

some challenges. This includes the cost, the need for energy for its operation, and the complexity of the

technology. In addition, it is important to consider ethical risks and concerns about reliance on technology on

the battlefield.

Mendoza F. et al. Advances in exoskeletons for military use.

ISSN-E: 2737-6419

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Vol. 4, Issue 12, (pp. 43-54)

Exoskeletons have been explored as a promising technology to improve soldiers' strength, endurance, and

protection in the military field. They can provide soldiers with greater strength and physical endurance,

allowing them to carry and handle heavy loads more efficiently. In addition, these devices can reduce muscle

fatigue and help avoid injuries associated with transporting heavy equipment over long distances.

There are developments designed to provide additional protection to soldiers. They may include features

such as integrated armor plates or shock absorption systems to protect the user against injury caused by

explosions, debris, or projectiles. But they can also help improve soldiers' accuracy and stability by reducing

tremors and unwanted movements. This can be especially beneficial for activities that require precise aim,

such as using firearms or handling delicate equipment.

Exoskeletons can also have logistical applications in the military field. For example, they can facilitate the

loading and unloading of supplies, equipment maintenance and repair, and construction tasks in rugged

terrain. However, despite the potential benefits, there are challenges associated with using exoskeletons in

military affairs. The challenges include the cost of developing and acquiring the devices, their weight and

volume, the need for power supply, and adapting to different operating environments.

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THE AUTHORS

Franklin Mendoza, Major in Ecuadorian Army, Land Force Property

Department. Degree in Military Sciences at ESPE - University of Armed

Forces (Ecuador). Head of the Property Department of the Financial

Directorate of the Land Force. Research area: Technology, Finance,

Pedagogy, Human Resources.

Diana Durango, Quartermaster Captain Diana Cristina Durango

Flores Ecuadorian Army, Logistics Support Command No. 17

"PASTAZA". Bachelor of Military Sciences University of Armed Forces

ESPE. Master's Degree in Sports Training Armed Forces University

ESPE Staff Officer of the Logistics Support Command No. 17

"PASTAZA".

Gabriela Pallo, Quartermaster Captain Bertha Gabriela Pallo Chalco.

Ecuadorian Army, Military Geographic Institute- Logistics Director.

Master in International Marketing and Online Commerce at UNIR

studying (Spain), Bachelor of Military Sciences Polytechnic School of

the Army (Ecuador). Logistics Officer in COLOG N°25 between 2019-

2020, Logistics Officer in Logistics Command N°73-year 2022.

Édison Merchán, Transport Lieutenant Merchán Tixi Édison Javier

Ecuadorian Army, Logistic Support Command No. 27 "PORTETE".

Bachelor of Military Sciences Eloy Alfaro Military High School (Ecuador).

Commander of the Log. 55 "PUTUMAYO" of the Ecuadorian Army from

2018-2021. CAL27 "PORTETE" Supply Officer 2021-2022.

Mendoza F. et al. Advances in exoskeletons for military use.